Practice makes the brain work better: A developmental training study

Despite the importance of keeping information in an active state when learning
new information (such as in school), it is not yet known how the maturation of
this function is related to changes in brain function over the course of child
development. Neuroimaging research has shown that 8-12-year-old children fail
to recruit prefrontal cortex and perform worse than adults when manipulating
information in working memory. In the current project, we will train working
memory functions in different age groups to test whether this under-recruitment
is the result of maturational constraints (i.e., this region is not yet
accessible) or limited practice (i.e., children do not know how to use this
region).

The main objective of this study is to investigate whether under-recruitment of
the prefrontal cortex and poorer performance during manipulation of working
memory in children is a result of immature neural circuitry or of limited
practice.

Experimental design; Repeated measures with between-subjects comparisons.

Participants will receive a working memory training program, in which they are
trained three times a week, for a period of 6 weeks. In the first and last week
of the training period, participants will be scanned using functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI) while they are performing an object working memory
task that is used in the training program and a spatial working memory task
that will not be trained. On both occasions, resting state activity will also
be assessed and a structural high-resolution anatomical scan will be made. A
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) scan will made only in the first week. In
addition, participants will complete a demographic questionnaire and a battery
of cognitive tests before and after the training phase. There will be a
follow-up 6 months later in which participants will be (behaviorally) tested on
the working memory tasks/ cognitive tests.

There are no risks associated with behavioral testing and training. There is an
occasional possibility of some frustration with poor performance or fatigue,
testing will stop if a subject displays frustration or appears tired. There are
no known risks associated with participating in an fMRI study. Subjects with
intracranial or intraocular metal, a pacemaker, possible pregnancy and
claustrophobia will be excluded because of potential contraindications of MRI
in such subjects. The Nederlands Vereniging voor Kindergeneeskunde (NVK) code
of conduct; Gedragscode verzet bij minderjarigen die deelnemen aan
medisch-wetenschappelijk onderzoek will be applied to this study.

Considering the minimal risks involved in this research, the importance of the
benefits gained from this research far outweighs the costs. This study aims to
acquire knowledge about the normal development of working memory in relation to
maturation of neural circuitry on the one hand and practice on the other hand.
This knowledge about normal development is critical to aid in the understanding
of cases of abnormal cognitive development, as seen in children with learning
disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, autism spectrum disorder,
or traumatic brain injury. The results will also be of great importance to
educational service. Working memory is the driving force behind many cognitive
capabilities, such as those involved in reading and arithmetic. By
understanding the potential of children*s brain systems in the context of the
developing brain, we will be able to demonstrate what can and cannot be
expected of children across school-aged development.