Brain development in Childhood and emerging Adolescence

Most children develop well and find their way into society without many
problems, but not all children manage to do so. We know that this difference is
related to a combination of the child*s disposition and the environment in
which he or she is raised. Not all children are equally vulnerable for harmful
environments, however, on the other hand, not all children equally benefit from
the positive effects of a supportive environment.
In the last two decades, researchers have discovered much about the
fascinating changes in how the brain develops during childhood and emerging
adolescence. This has led to new insights into how children adapt to quickly
changing social environments, such as school, social relations, friendships,
etc. (Crone & Dahl, 2012). However, much less is understood about why some
children adapt easier than others. Currently, the leading hypothesis is that
temperamental differences may result in differential susceptibility to the
child*s environment, such as the home situations and influence of peers (Belsky
& de Haan, 2011). That is to say, some children may be more sensitive to
positive or negative environmental factors than others.

This study aims to investigate the effects of a behavioral intervention which
is aimed at the improvementenhancing of parental sensitivity and sensitive
disciplinary techniques to on the development of children*s social competence
and behavioral control of the children. Furthermore, this study aims to
investigate how the developing brain is shaped by the interplay of personal and
environmental factors using longitudinal brain imaging investigation.
Investigators of different backgrounds will combine efforts to make significant
steps in understanding this dynamic interaction. Central questions of this
study are: Which children are most susceptible to the intervention, and what
neurobiological mechanisms play a role in the effect of the intervention on
children*s development.

In a longitudinal study families will be followed for six years. Every year,
there will be either a home or a laboratory visit. During two of the laboratory
visits, we will measure brain activation using functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) while participants are performing two computerized tasks. Also,
we will use structural MRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) to measure
underlying brain anatomical processes. Following these annual visits,
ambulatory measurements will take place at home. The study uses randomized
control design. The experimental group (half of the sample) will receive an
intervention between the second and third measurement (Video-feedback
Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline [VIPP-SD];
Juffer et al., 2008), which is aimed at enhancing sensitive parenting skills.

The experimental group will receive the VIPP-SD (Juffer et al., 2008), which is
aimed at enhancing sensitive parenting skills, also in the context of
discipline. The control group will receive -within the same time frame and with
the same frequency- phone calls of a researcher (dummy intervention). During
these phone calls, the parents will answer questions about the development of
their children.

There are no known risks associated with participating in the proposed
measurements. The cognitive and behavioral tasks have been used by the research
group in previous studies. MRI is a noninvasive technique involving no
catheterizations or introduction of exogenous tracers. Numerous children and
adults have undergone magnetic resonance studies without apparent harmful
consequences. Some people become claustrophobic while inside the magnet and in
these cases the study will be terminated immediately at the subject's request.
The only absolute contraindications to MRI studies are the presence of
intracranial or intraocular metal, or a pacemaker. Relative contraindications
include claustrophobia. Subjects who may have metallic foreign bodies in the
eyes or head, or who have cardiac pacemakers will be excluded because of
potential contraindications of MRI in such subjects. Although there is no
direct benefit to the participants from this proposed research, there are
greater benefits to society from the potential knowledge gained from this
study. This knowledge about normal development is critical to aid in the
understanding of cases of abnormal development, as seen in children with autism
spectrum disorder, depression, schizophrenia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Tourette*s syndrome, or traumatic
brain injury.
Several randomized controlled trial indicated the effectiveness of the
VIPP-SD in improving parental sensitivity and showed that the intervention has
no harmful effects (e.g., Bakermans-Kranenburg, Van IJzendoorn, Mesman, Alink,
& Juffer, 2008; Juffer et al., 2008; Kalinauskiene et al., 2009; Van Zeijl et
al., 2006).