The neural signature of self-concept development in adolescence in relation to romantic relations and sexuality in youth

Original study:
Self-concept changes dramatically in adolescence, including an increase in
self-other comparison and a rise in self-consciousness. These self-concept
changes pose vulnerabilities as well as opportunities for adolescents. There
has been a great and longstanding interest in self-concept development in
adolescence, but it has been difficult to measure this construct because
self-concept is not observable in behavior and self-report is sensitive to
response bias. Recently, with the use of brain imaging techniques it was
discovered that self-related thoughts can be robustly assessed using neural
responses to self-related cues. The aim of the current set of studies is to
examine changes in brain structure and function in relation to these changes in
self-concept development during adolescence. The key question of this study
concerns: When and how do changes in self-concept emerge in adolescence and
which factors facilitate (healthy, positive) self-concept development?
Testing for linear versus non-linear brain developmental patterns will be a
turning point in our understanding of self-concept development by revealing the
interactive determinants of self-knowledge and prosocial development.

Addendum Gap Year:
Adolescence is an important inflection point in life, where individuals gain
independence from their caregivers and develop into adults who pursue
individual goals. Our understanding of this inflection period has benefited
from two decades of research on brain development, in which it was discovered
that the developing brain in adolescence is much more plastic than previously
thought, with huge implications for treatment and intervention. Whereas
previously research has focused mostly on the determinants of adolescent
emerging disorders (depression, anxiety, schizophrenia), there is a growing
interest for understanding high stake societal issues which affects all
adolescents. One prominent area where research on self-concept development will
prove crucial is in the domain of healthy, positive academic career
development. ln the Netherlands, many adolescents are struggling with the
question of how to make future-oriented academic choices that fit their
identity. More than 30% of first-year higher education students drop out of
their studies in their first year. This is a considerable concern as it has
important consequences for both the adolescent and society as a whole. This
dropout occurs in all levels of secondary education and is not related to
intelligence prosocial economic background. Several programs have been launched
to reduce this dropout with limited success. Most programs aimed at providing
more detailed information to students about job perspectives. A neglected area,
however are the questions of whether and how adolescents are able to make
future-oriented choices that fit with their identity. That is to say, none of
the programs focus on the role of self-concept development in academic
outcomes, even though scientific studies have shown that self-knowledge and
self-esteem are the best predictors for academic achievement, over and above
academic competence. Until recently, it has been difu*cult to measure this
construct because self-concept is not observable in behavior and self-report is
sensitive to response bias. Recently, with the use of brain imaging techniques
it was discovered that self-related thoughts can be robustly assessed using
neural responses to self-related cues. Thus, there is promising potential to
examine the role of (the neural characteristics) of self-concept in relation to
academic failure and success. Participants for this study will be recruited in
collaboration with the Foundation Gap Year program ("Stichting Breekjaai'). The
Gap Year program provides training programs for adolescents who have dropped
out of higher education and experience diffculties with academic and career
choices. Participants of this program follow a 12-month self-concept training
where they learn more about personal development and start working on improving
their self-esteem
and decision-making.

Addendum ASD:
Adolescents learn aboutthemselves through their peers. Adolescents with high
functioning autism become more concemed about friendships and they want to fit
in. However, in this period they often notice for the firsttime thatthey are
difierent. This affects their self-esteem: young people with high functioning
autism who view themselves as being different from others, report higher levels
of depressive symptoms. As adolescents with high functioning autism experience
more trouble with relating to their peer group, it might be harder for them to
maintain a positive self-concept at this developmental stage. Therefore, it is
important to investigate self-concept in adolescents with high functioning
autism.
The goal of this study is to examine the structure and function of the brain in
relation to self-concept in adolescents with high functioning autism. The main
question of this study is: Wat are the neural processes underlying self-concept
in adolescents with high functioning autism?

Current Amendement (extra questionnaire):
Adolescence is an important developmental stage in the exploration of romantic
and sexual awareness, cognition and behavior. Interest in intimate relations
and sexuality intensifies during the onset of puberty, and are often a key
aspect of adolescents* lives. Yet, adolescent sexuality has been primarily
studied in the context of risky behavior and subsequent potential public health
issues. However, the exploration of intimate relationships and sexual behaviors
during adolescence are not inherently risky. Nevertheless, most studies focused
on risk factors associated with first intercourse in adolescence and herewith
aim to target protective factors to delay its onset. For example, educational
programs promote responsible sexual decision-making in young people. However,
adolescent sexual development is multifaceted and encompasses more than sexual
intercourse, moreover most sexually active teenagers engage in (first-time)
sexual behaviors within the context of a romantic relationship (Manning et al.,
2000, 2005). However, how romantic and sexual awareness, sexual behavior and
sexual cognition, interact and evolve over time through important life
transitions such as puberty and what neural mechanisms are involved is largely
unknown.

Connecting sexuality of early adolescence with elements of adult sexuality is
challenging. In addition, the literature on adult sexual development is biased
towards sexual (dis)functioning. Though, sexual health is not merely the
absence of illness or sexual problems, but also encompasses physical, mental,
emotional, and social well-being in relation to sexuality. This is shown for
example by studies that indicate that sexual experience was positively
associated with body image and sexual subjectivity in adolescence. In addition,
longitudinal studies showed that both early and late sexual onset are related
to mental health issues, poorer peer relationships, and higher adjustment
difficulties (see review Boislard et al., 2016). E.g. sexual precocity has been
associated with externalizing symptoms in boys (Boislard et al., 2013) and
internalizing symptoms in girls, such as low self-esteem (Spencer et al.,
2002). These studies highlight the need for a better understanding of
mechanisms involved in romantic and sexual maturation and their interaction
with developmental changes in other domains including social behavior,
affective processes and self-concept. Particularly longitudinal research is
needed to investigate how trajectories of these domains run parallel to one
another and how various stages and events in these trajectories are
intertwined. This is what we aim to investigate with the addition of the
questionnaire *Romantic relations and sexuality in youth* proposed i

Original study:
The goal of this study is to have a theoretically based understanding of how
sub processes of self-concept development emerge in relation to each other. The
primary objective is to test a neuroscientific model of self-concept
development by relating self-concept changes to
neuroscience discoveries in a comprehensive study including children,
adolescents and adults.

Besides, we are also interested in:
Testing the moderating role of environmental support factors including parent
and peer relations in the development of self-concept.
And testing for differences between adolescents who do and who do not
experience academic choice difficulties.

Addendum Gap Year:
The goal of this study is to understand what characterized adolescents who have
difu*culties with making academic choices. Furthermore, we test the hypothesis
that self-concept training, as observed in a naturalistic environment, will be
beneficial for the development of self-knowledge
and positive self-evaluation.
Participants will be included who are taking part in a training program
developed in the Netherlands for adolescents who have dropped out of higher
education, named the "Gap yead' program. The curent study will evaluate the
program quantitatively focusing on individual difierences between adolescents
in relation to self-concept and academic choice.
Finall¡ this study will make the additional step of relating these outcomes to
individual difierences in brain activity. The brain- based evaluation of the
training will provide a more detailed indication of the underlying processes
(behaviorally and neural responses) that are changing by the training.

Addendum ASD:
The goal of this study is to have a theoretically based understanding of
self-concept in adolescents with high functioning autism. The primary objective
is to test a neuro scientific model of self-concept by relating self-concept to
neuroscience discoveries.
Besides, we are also interested in:
Relating these results to individual differences in perspective taking and
tendency to empasize.
And testing for differences between adolescents with and without an autism
spectrum disorder. For this, we will compare the results of this study with the
results of the typically developing adolescents (the participant group from the
original study).

Current Amendement (extra questionnaire):
The goal of this study is to explore typical development of romantic relations
and sexuality in youth. Furthermore, this study will enable us to link
developmental changes in romantic relations and sexuality to individual
differences in self-concept such as self-esteem and body image. Also, this
study allows us to investigate the underlying neural mechanisms and
developmental changes in romantic relations and sexuality.

Original study:
This study will rely on the newest paradigm development and will be the first
using an integrative multi-method (i.e., self-report, biological markers and
brain imaging) approach.

This study uses a comprehensive longitudinal design combining neural activity
responses with behavioural assessments. Participants will perform a
computerized task related to self-knowledge and prosocial behavior and we will
measure brain activation using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
while they are performing the tasks. We will use structural MRI and Diffusion
Tensor Imaging (DTI) to measure underlying brain anatomical processes. In
addition, we will measure cognitive functioning on a battery of tasks outside
of the scanner. We will also collect hormone measures from saliva samples. At
Least we will collect sleep data, using a watch that detects motion during the
sleep.

To this end, we will acquire fMRI and sMRI data and behavioural responses of
participants aged 10-22 years (n=300) in three separate sessions, 1 year apart
in the time period 2016-2021.

Addendum Gap Year:
This study will use an integrative multi-method (i.e., self-report, biological
markers and brain imaging) approach for studying the neural characteristics of
the development of self-concept in relation with academic choice in
adolescents. We will make use of an existing self-concept training program of
the Gap Year Program.
The training program provided by Gap Year makes use of the theoretical
rationale that perspective taking (evaluating or talking aboutthe self and
one's life in relation to expectations of others) is important in the
development of social-cognitive self- knowledge, and enhances
self-understanding by forming links between elements of one's life and the self
through communication w¡th sign¡ficant others and fr¡ends.
The program is an intensive one year program ¡n workgroups by experienced
educators/coaches. The program consists of five phases: (1)Awareness of the
self and behavioral patterns ("\Mro am l?"), (2) Breaking with old
self-descriptions ("i*Mrat do lthink is actually important?"), (3) Experiencing
new directions and exploring possibilities for self-concept development by
participating in volunteerwork (\Mrat are my strengths?"), (4) Making new
decisions based on these new experiences ("\Mlat do I want?") ana* (5) Building
new self-concepts which guide future academic cho¡ces ("\fltrat do I need?").
ln collaboration with the Gap Year Program, we will recruit 50 adolescents in
the age range of 16 - 24 years before they start their training program. To
test for training efects, we will measure flVlRl, structural MRI and behavioral
responses before the start of the training program (baseline), haln*ray through
the program (6 months) and afrer the program (12 months). At follow up (1 5
months) there will be another behavioral measurement. Participants will perform
a computerized task related to self-knowledge
and self-evaluation and we will measure brain activation using functional
Magnetic Resonance lmaging (fltllRl) while they are performing the tasks. We
will use structural MRI and Difilsion Tensor lmaging (DTl) to measure
underlying brain anatomical processes. ln addition, we will measure cognitive
functioning on a battery of tasks outside of the scanner. We will also collect
hormone measures ftom saliva samples. At last, we will collect sleep data using
a watch that detects motion during sleep.

Addendum ASD:
This study will rely on the newest paradigm development and will be the first
using an integrative multi-method (i.e., self-report,
biological markers and brain imaging) approach. The study will investigate the
neural characteristics of the self-concept in adolescents with high functioning
autism.
Together with the Berg en Bosch school, we will recruit 50 participants between
10 and 18 years old. The Berg en Bosch school is a school specialized in
educating children with an autism spectrum disorder. The school has repeatedly
expressed ib interest in participating in scientific research and will be
actively involved in the recruitnent of participants.
This study combines neural activity responses with behavioural assessments.
Participants will perform a computerized task related to self-knowledge and
prosocial behavior and we will measure brain activation using functional
Magnetic Resonance lmaging (flt/Rl) while they are performing the tasks. We
will use structural MRI and Diffusion Tensor lmaging (DTl) to measure
underlying brain anatomical processes. ln addition, we will measure cognitive
functioning on a battery of tasks outside of the scanner. We will also collect
hormone measures from saliva samples. At Leastwe will collect sleep data, using
a watch that detects motion during the sleep.

Current Amendement (extra questionnaire):
The addendum is based on a self-report questionnaire *Romantic relations and
sexuality in youth *, which will be administered digital.

There are no known risks associated with participating in the proposed
measurements. MRI is a non-invasive technique.