Social Learning in Adolescents

Original study:
Humans evolved in a highly social environment, in which social learning,
defined as learning to predict actions of others and interacting successfully
with them, was critical for survival. Given that our social world is highly
complex (e.g. consisting of numerous complex agents) and dynamic (e.g.
constantly changing relations), substantial neural resources have been evolved
to deal with social interactions. Several developmental phases are
characterized by different sets of social-cognitive skills and environmental
demands. Adolescence, which starts with the onset of puberty, is one
particularly challenging period in which social behaviour transitions to full
integration with larger groups of peers. A fundamental task in adolescence is
to achieve adult levels of social competence. This requires a great deal of
learning about complex social interactions. That is, adolescence is a period of
encountering many novel social situations (e.g. school, sport-teams, home) in
which adolescents aim to integrate social signals from peers and become a
significant member in the peer group. However, we know yet little of the
changes and underlying mechanisms of adolescent learning in social contexts.

A new neurodevelopmental model suggested that particularly puberty increases
adolescents* flexible learning and quick adaptation to novel social contexts.
Adolescence is a period of ongoing changes in function and structure of
subcortical-limbic, and cortical-control brain regions that may give rise to
changes in risk-taking, learning and social sensitivity. Puberty is the main
biological basis of the transition from childhood to adolescence and is marked
by a sharp rise in gonadal hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol, which
are thought to influence the developing brain. Particularly puberty is thought
to drive changes in social interactions, possibly by a moderating role on
underlying brain development.

Here I propose to advance our understanding of the age-related changes in
social learning in relation to brain development by studying: (1) learning by
observation (2) learning by social interactions.

Current addendum:
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common
developmental disorders with a prevalence between 5-10% and is characterized by
high levels of attention and / or hyperactivity and impulsivity, and impaired
academic and social functioning. Learning, and social learning in particular,
is essential to be able to function at an age-appropriate level in academic and
social domains. However, research in ADHD has shown both problems in learning,
especially in the stimulus-response link and the prediction of reward, and in
the field of social cognition, for example in the field of mentalizing (putting
yourself in someone else's shoes). To date, not much is known about social
learning in adolescents with ADHD and its underlying mechanisms. Understanding
the neural markers that underlie these deficits in ADHD can provide new
information for parents, clinicians and policy makers. This makes it important
to conduct research on social learning among young people with ADHD.

Puberty marks the transition from child to adolescent and is a period in which
sex hormones such as testosterone and estradiol increase significantly and may
influence brain development. This can ultimately lead to changes in social
learning. Nothing is known yet about the levels of these sex hormones in youth
with ADHD, and the role of these hormones in social learning.

The aim of this study is to test a neurocognitive model of social learning in
adolescents with ADHD, by investigating brain structure, brain function,
modeling behavior and puberty. We focus on the questions of Study 1 from the
original protocol and examine both social learning through observation as well
as learning about outcomes for self and others.

Original study:
The proposed project will examine the effect of social learning in typical
developing adolescents, by including brain structure, function and behavioural
modelling in a typical developing age group.
The main goal of this study is to have a theoretically based understanding of
how social learning develops from childhood to adulthood.

The first primary objective is to test a neuroscientific model across
adolescence of social observational learning by distinguishing action-based
imitation, and outcome-based learning when observing others.
The second primary objective is to test pubertal-related change a
neuroscientific model of learning from social interactions by distinguishing
social preferences and social norms in social learning.

Besides, we are also interested in:
-Social modelling: Testing how social observational learning is modulated by
the observed agent.
-Learning from own (non-social) outcomes: This paradigm is focused on
observational learning, but also allows to study the influence and
developmental trajectory of experiential learning on the basis of positive and
negative feedback.
-Individual differences: testing for background variables such as social
preferences and social norms based on background environmental variables such
as home environment and parenting relation in a typical developing sample.

Current addendum:
The aim of this study is to gain scientific knowledge about social learning in
adolescents with ADHD. In addition, we relate these outcomes to individual
differences in psychosocial outcomes (for example, risk behavior) and
background variables, such as relationships with parents and peers. To be able
to make a good comparison, we include adolescents with and without ADHD in the
addendum study, who will be matched on demographic characteristics such as age
and level of education.

Original study:
This study uses a longitudinal (Study 1) and cross-sectional (Study 2) design,
combining neural activity responses with behavioural assessments. Participants
will perform a computerized task related to observational learning (Study 1),
and learning about the level of cooperation when interacting with others (Study
2). We will measure brain activation using functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI). We will use structural MRI and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
to measure underlying brain anatomical processes. In addition, we will measure
cognitive functioning (e.g. learning, working memory) and individual
differences (attachment, friendships) on a set of tasks and questionnaires
outside of the scanner. We will collect hormone measures from saliva samples,
because of our interest in the role of pubertal hormones in social
interactions. All measurements are non-invasive.

To this end, we will acquire fMRI and sMRI data and behavioral responses of
participants ages 8-20 years in three separate sessions, approximately 1 year
apart in the time period 2016-2020 (n=160). Additionally, we will acquire fMRI
and sMRI data and behavioral responses of participants aged 8-18 in a
cross-sectional study in the same time period (n=160).

Current addendum:
The addendum study builds on the two studies in this protocol and will focus on
the questions of Study 1, namely how do adolescents with ADHD learn from and
about others, which we test with a cross-sectional design. Subjects in the
addendum study play an observational-learning task (similar to study 1) and a
task in which they learn about outcomes for the self and others. We measure
brain activation with functional MRI. We also use structural MRI and Diffusion
Tensor Imaging to investigate structural changes in the brain over age.
Additionally, we measure cognitive functioning (learning, working memory) and
individual differences (friendships, parent relationship) on a set of tasks and
questionnaires outside the scanner. In addition, we also collect saliva samples
for hormone determinations. It is expected that puberty plays an important role
in the changes in social learning during adolescence. All measurements are
non-invasive.

Participants in the addendum study are between the ages of 14 and 20 years.
Data collection will be completed within the time allowed for the original
protocol (2020).

There are no known risks associated with participating in the proposed
measurements. MRI is a non-invasive technique